Table 1. Microbial Biogeography and Specificity Studies

S. No.	Number and Nature of Samples	Findings	References
1	Hands of individuals not been washed for a period of 6 hour to demonstrated that transfer of DNA from one individual to another under specific laboratory conditions using AMFRISTR SGM Plus	“The quantity and quality of DNA profiles recovered is dependent upon the particular individuals involved in the transfer process.”	Lowe et al. 2002
2	The study consisted of two evaluation periods: A and B. In Evaluation Period A, subjects’ hands were sampled following contact with one of eight common surfaces that were inoculated with a pool of three microorganisms comprising Serratia rubidea American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Rockville, MD) 11634, Micrococcus luteus ATCC 533, and PDR-1 phage (J. Ito, University of Arizona). In Evaluation Period B, subjects’ lower lips were sampled after they had been touched with a fingertip that had been inoculated with a pool of the same three microorganisms.	“It was concluded that the highest bacterial transfer rates from fomites to the hands were seen with the hard, non-porous surfaces. Even with low transfer rates, the numbers of bacteria transferred to the hands were still high (up to 106 cells). Transfer of bacteria from the fingertip to the lip is similar to that observed from hard surfaces to hands.”	Rusin et al. 2002
3	Five clinically healthy subjects were analyzed by collecting samples from nine sites (tongue dorsum, later sides of tongue, buccal epithelium, hard palate, soft palate, tooth surfaces, subgingival plaque, maxillary anterior vestibule and tonsils.	“Satisfied hypothesis with finding that bacterial flora of the individuals are highly diverse and subject specific.”	Aas et al. 2005
4	Swabbing of superficial volar left and right forearms in six healthy subjects	“The results show that the bacterial biota in normal superficial skin is highly diverse with few well conserved and well presented genera.”	Gao et al. 2007
5	Examined the palmar surfaces of the dominant and non-dominant hands of 51 healthy young adult volunteers to characterize bacterial diversity on hands to assess its variability within and between individuals. A novel pyrosequencing based method was used	“The diversity of skin associated bacterial communities was high. The variation within and between individuals in the study indicates their potentiality for personal identification.”	Fierer et al. 2008
6	Studied composition and dynamics of indoor dust bacterial flora of two buildings over a period of one year. Four samples were taken in each building corresponding to four seasons and constructed 16S rRNA DNA libraries.	“They reported that the microflora of the two buildings investigated differed statistically and differences between the buildings were more pronounced than differences between seasons indicating its usefulness in determining geographic identity.”	Rintala et al. 2008
7	Swabbing from 27 sites in seven to nine healthy adults on four occasions.	“Satisfied the hypothesis that microbiota are personalized and varies systematically across body habitats and time.”	Costello et al. 2009
8	Used DNA amplification methods to detect common oral bacterial strains to test for the presence of saliva in forensic samples	“Streptococcus salivarius and S. mutans were detected in various forms of saliva samples whereas these Streptococci were not detected in semen, urine, vaginal fluid or on skin surfaces and demonstrated that these Streptococci are promising new marker for the forensic identification of saliva.”	Nakanishi et al. 2009
9	Individual keys of three computer keyboards	“High degree of similarity was observed between the keys of computer keyboards and fingertips of individuals.”	Fierer et al. 2010
10	Tested the suitability of physical fingerprints for revealing human host information with geographic inference via microbial DNA fingerprinting	“Reported that the dynamic fingerprint microflora challenges human host influences for forensic purposes including geographic ones. Overall results suggest that human fingerprint microflora is too dynamic to allow for forensic marker developments for retrieving human information.”	Tims et al. 2010
11	100 saliva samples to distinguish expirated bloodstains in forensic science.	“Data show that bacteria present in the oral cavity can be detected in blood stains that contain saliva and therefore can potentially be used as a marker in forensic work to distinguish mouth expirated bloodstains from other types of bloodstains.”	Donaldson et al. 2010
12	Used the 16S- 23S rRNA intergenic spacer region for identifying vaginal specific bacteria	“L. crispatus and L. gasseri were detected in vaginal secretions but not in semen, blood or saliva. Therefore, suggested that Lactobacilli are promising new markers for the forensic identification of vaginal secretions.”	Fleming and Harbinson, 2010
13	Explored the biogeographical patterns of bacteria across ten surfaces within each of twelve public restrooms using high-throughput barcoded pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene	“The study reported 19 bacterial phyla across all surfaces. They suggested that this can be used as high throughput put analysis of bacterial communities to determine sources of bacterial on indoor surfaces. Therefore, this approach would used to track the personal identity.”	Gilberto et al. 2011
14	Sample clusters by body habitat covering two individuals at four body sites over 396 time points using DNA sequencing and computational advances.	“Reported temporal variations over protracted periods within and between body habitats and individuals.”	Caporaso et al. 2011
15	Skin microbidata- outline the potential determining factors driving its variability.	“The review describes potential determining factors driving its variability, posit the likelihood of an association between the resulting microbial community structure on the skin with disease outcomes among individuals, and finally, to present some challenges and implications for studying the skin microbiota.”	Rosenthal et al. 2011
16	Experimental bite marks and suspected teeth responsible for the mark (Bite mark and teeth swabs) analyzed for bacterial composition similarity.	“Findings strongly support that bacterial DNA amplified from bite marks and teeth can provide corroborating information in the identification of criminal.”	Kennedy et al. 2012
17	Samples collected from each pf 5 body habitats (tongue surfaces, faces, forehead skin, underarm skin and forearm skin) from 4 individuals and analyzed using 16S rRNA gene	“Significant differences in the estimates of taxon richness or phylogenetic diversity obtained.”	Gilberto et al. 2012
18	Examines primary, secondary and tertiary transfer events involving DNA originating from Saliva, a commonly encountered body fluids	“The results indicate that when saliva is the source of the transferred DNA, the primary depositor often the major contributor and suggested that shedder status is less relevant with regard to touch DNA samples in a forensic setting and emphasize the need for caution when analyzing such samples.”	Warshauer et al. 2012
19	Plantar skins and insoles of shoes of volunteers were swabbed for bacteria and their bacterial community profiles were compared using bacterial 16S rRNA termination restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis	“The profiling identified that each volunteers plantar skins harbored unique bacterial communities as did the individuals footwear insoles.”	Goga 2012
20	Developed and performed PCR based detection of 16S rRNA genes of Lactobacillus spp. Dominating the vagina and of bacterial vaginasis related bacteria from DNA extracted from body fluids and stains	“They reported that 16S rRNA genes of L. Crispatus, l. Jensenii and A. Vaginae could be effective markers for forensic identification of vaginal fluid.”	Akutsu et al. 2012
21	240 vaginal samples by NGS. 389 candidate probes targeting genera or species and designed a microarray, 43 DNA extracts from vaginal samples and 25 DNA extracts from samples from other body sites including sites in close proximity of or in contact with the vagina.	“Suggested that Microarray analysis of a sample will render a microbial flora pattern that is probably best analysed in a probabilistic approach.”	Benschop et al. 2012
22	Examined the diversity of bacterial communities found in nine distinct locations within each of forty homes in the Raleigh-Durham area, North Cardina, USA using high throughput sequencing of the bacterial 16SrRNA gene.	“They reported that each of the sampled locations harboured bacterial communities that were distinct from one another with surfaces that are regularly cleaned typically harbouring lower levels of diversity than surfaces that are cleaned infrequently.”	Dunn et al. 2013
23	Examined high throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to explore biogeographical patterns of bacteria across > 80 surfaces within the kitchens of each of four households	“Study indicates that diverse bacterial communities are widely distributed in residential kitchens and that the composition of each surface is predictable and able to personal identification.”	Gilberto et al. 2013
24	Mobile phones to gather data about the personal microbiome. Smartphone touch screens were determined directly from the owners and swabbing were collected	“Results suggested that on an individual level men and women both shared significantly more of their bacterial communities with their own phones than with anyone else’s and also reported that mobile phones hold untapped potential as personal microbiome sensors.”	Meadow et al.2014
25	Sampled 16S rRNA gene from four different surface types throughout a University classroom to determine whether bacterial assemblages on each surface were best predicted by routine human interactions or by proximity to other surfaces within the classroom	“Bacterial assemblages from the four surface types as well as individual taxa were indicative of different source pools related to the type of human contact each surface routinely encounters. Above findings indicates their utility in forensic identification.”	Meadow et al. 2014
26	Examined 11 subjects to characterize the airborne bacterial contribution by using 16S rRNA genes	“Results confirmed that individuals release their own personalized microbial cloud. Therefore, indicates their potential for forensic identifications.”	Meadow et al. 2014
27	Identified body fluid by integrated analysis of DNA methylation and body fluid specific microbial DNA.	1) Multiplex system used distinguished the semen by un-methylation at the USP49, DAC T1 and PFN3 tDMRs and by hyper-methylation at L81528.	Choi et al. 2014
28	42 DNA extracts obtained from human scalp and pubic hairs to address the applicability of metagenomics in forensic science.	“The results revealed the presence of unique combinations of microbial taxa that can enable discrimination between individuals and signature taxa indigenous of female pubic hairs. They suggested that microbial data from a single co-habiting couple added an extra dimension to the study by suggesting that metagenomic analyses might be of evidentiary value in sexual assault cases when other associative evidence is not present.”	Tridico et al. 2014
29	Repeat samples from two parklands in residential areas separated by approximately 3 km were collected and extracted DNA. Shotgun and whole genome amplification (WGA) and single arbitrarily primed DNA amplification (AP-PCR) based sequencing techniques were then used to generate soil metagenomic profiles.	“Shotgun and WGA based approaches generated highly similar metagenomic profiles for the soil samples such that soil samples could not be distinguished accurately. An AP-PCR based approach was shown to be successful at obtaining reproducible site specific metagenomic DNA profiles which in turn were employed for successful discrimination of visually similar soil samples collected from two different locations.”	Khodakova et al. 2014
30	Micro-organisms from the hands of US adult women (n=15) as well as Tanzanian adult women (n=29) were collected.	Members of the Propionibacteriaceae, Staphylococcaceae and Streptococceacea families were highly abundant on US hands and drove the clustering of US hand microbial communities into a distinct group. The most abundant bacterial taxa on Tanzanian hands were the soil-associated Rhodobacteraceae and Nocardioidaceae.	Hospodsky et al. 2014
31	 Keyboard swabbing of a public computer	“Satisfied the hypothesis that higher similarity of bacterial community between public computer keyboards and laboratory members fingertips.”	Lee et al. 2015
32	Two participants sampled the front and back of their cell phones, four different locations on the soles of their shoes and the floor beneath them every waking hour over a 2 day period	“Results indicated that different surfaces types maintained significantly different microbial community structures. Both shoe and phone samples taken by participants clustered into distinct groups based on location though much more. So when an unweighted distance metric was used suggesting sharing of low abundance microbial taxa between individuals inhabiting the same space.”	Lax et al. 2015
33	Investigation was done by developing a hitting set based coding algorithm and applying to human micro biome project population	“The investigation demonstrates the feasibility of micro biome based identifiability.”	Franzosa et al. 2015
34	Representative 130 left and right entrance door handles from 65 university buildings over three time points, for a total of 390 samples at the University of Waterloo were swabbed during an academic term in order to determine if microbial community assemblages coincided with building usage and whether these communities are stable temporally.	“This study demonstrates highly variable microbial communities associated with frequently contacted door handles on a university campus. Nonetheless, the data also revealed several building-specific and temporally stable bacterial and archaeal community patterns, with a potential impact of accumulated debris, a possible result of low human throughput, on detected microbial communities.”	Ross and Neufeld, 2015
35	Examined 160 supragingival plaque samples from patients with dental health and different severities of dental caries for 16S rRNA V1-V3 analysis	“Identified 453 species, 122 genera, 66 families, 34 orders, 21 classes and 12 phyla. They suggested the occurrence of similar community structures of supragingival plaques among groups.”	Xiao et al. 2016
36	Sampled extreme environments in six houses in the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area. The sites sampled in all six houses included environments that were extreme in terms of their temperature, pH and/or chemical environments.	Their findings highlight the importance of examining interactive effects of multiple environmental extremes on microbial communities. Inasmuch as taxa from extreme environments can be both beneficial and harmful to humans.	Savage et al. 2016

DISCUSSION:

Biogeography intends to describe geographical prototype of diversity in the perspective of evolutionary procedures such as phylogenies, distribution, disappearance, and species relations. Macroecologists have extensively investigated the biogeography of advanced plants and animals in various environments. On the contrary, there is very minute knowledge accessible on the prokaryotes biogeography. This occurred from the intricacy of considering microbial communities by methods of cultivation, with sampling of only 0.1% to 10% of the microbial communities. On the other hand, with the arrival of cultivation-free sequencing methods, many microbial communities of environments have been considered, including the Antarctic and Arctic Oceans, soil, and the Sargasso Sea. This, consecutively, aided prokaryotic biogeography investigations in a number of surroundings on magnitude ranging from 0.002km to 20,000km and from extent of a nation to intercontinental range [9]. Data information from several of studies in biodiversity are gathered in database lists, a prearranged and well planned collection of information where the data storage of and the approach to information are aided to researchers. In biosciences, the initiation of bioinformatics uses and computer databases has unbolted up the prospective for extended exploration of collective existing sets of data. These comprises the examinations of species allocations by means of both time and space and their use for educational purpose (both public and formal), for preservation and systematic research, medicine use and forensic researches, in climate change and natural resource management uses. Many varied uses may perfectly shape the source of much of what we do as people every day (Fierer, 2008).

In our study, a total of 35 research and review articles were used for conducting the Meta analysis in order to elucidate how the microbial biogeography and their environmental specificity can be useful in forensic caseworks. The analysis reveals that most of the microbial biogeographical studies were conducted in developed countries like USA particularly. India as a developing country is not providing greater emphasis and effort on such kind of advanced studies. The biasness observed in these studies towards developed countries may be due to several factors: 1) advanced technical aspects like NGS analysis, bioinformatics softwares, etc. 2) Another most important factor is research and development approach and budget funding. Profiling and characterization of microbial community is a principal concern for microbial forensics. Microbial biogeographic patterns had been seldom expressed for fungal populations as well as for bacterial communities. New terms, like met genome or pan-genome have been widely studied for microbial genomes and becomes ever more common in the literatures (Barns et al. 2005). Indeed, advanced genomic technologies resulted in substantial improvement to microbiology, make available the thorough investigation of populations and complicated microbial environments, as well as the assessment of several genomes (LeClerc et al. 1996; James et al. 2003). Metagenome studies of airborne organisms executed for indoor environments demonstrated a massive number of fungal and new bacterial phenotypes, although the complete microbial diversity of airborne samples may still be far away from the approximated variety for water and soil samples (Ussery et al. 2004). Thus, origin of microbial diversity and upholding is initialling right away to be understood in better way. Microbial biogeography is even now in its early stages and enormous predictions are likely to be coming in future years. The arrival of comprehensive genotyping researches on population’s microbes makes available an exclusive prospect to evaluate genetic diversity within and among populations.

In past several years, molecular phylogenetic aspects have transformed microbial related studies and expanded our view regarding microbial diversity patterns and their utility in other disciplines of applied and life sciences. In terms of data quality, the researcher and the depositor of the primary data should bear the responsibility while sharing their data on databases. NCBI and GBIF are the reputed databases which accept and publish data after proper approval. The database available on microorganisms in NCBI are mostly bacterial dominant data’s and contains only few information’s in Indian context. Therefore, it is obvious that from Indian point of view no such kind of studies so far has been reported and various scientific working groups’ involved forensic research should provide major emphasis and efforts in such aspects of microbial studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.

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Received on 28.04.2017 Modified on 12.05.2017

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2017; 10(12): 4451-4456.

DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00820.4